The writing process has strengthened my powers of perception and analysis, and taught me to respect the potency of language. . . . [W]riting Is not a restrictive activity but rather an enabling process that opens students' eyes to a larger creative university.
How can we, as teachers, facilitate our students' critical thinking, risk taking, and assimilation of new material? To find an answer to this question, it is clear that we must look beyond a passive lecture-test-lecture model to one that is more active (or interactive). Otherwise, we might be more aptly called "data dumpers" rather than "teachers." One scholar has quipped in mock agreement with the passive model that she hopes to have a T-shirt some day that says, "I know that I taught it because I heard myself say it" (Maimon xiv). This motto, of course, epitomizes the naiveté of a passive pedagogy that values data transmission over active cognition. We will not encourage much higher-level cognition until we draw upon the primary means of learning that we use to teach ourselves: writing.
During the past several decades, there has been a wealth of pedagogical research on writing and cognition, which in turn has led to more writing- and student-centered teaching methods. Susan McLeod explains that [This] . . . approach, sometimes referred to as cognitive, involves writing to learn. . . . [and] assumes that writing is not only a way of showing what one has learned but is itself a mode of learning-that writing can be used as a tool for, as well as a test of, learning. . . . Knowledge is not passively received, the theory goes, but is actively constructed by each individual learner . . . . (4). Since research in and across the disciplines strongly supports the notion that writing fosters cognitive growth, it seems that to neglect writing as a teaching "tool" is to neglect a powerful medium for engaging students in active "learning." It is not only a valuable means of teaching disciplinary objectives but cognitive ones as well. In a short investigation of randomly selected BGSU academic departments, we've found that most of the professors we interviewed share fundamental "learning" objectives for their students, which can be achieved or supplemented by the use of writing as a "mode of learning."
| to read, write, and think critically |
| to observe and visualize complex concepts |
| to explore and learn from new perspectives |
| to think independently and creatively |
| to negotiate and assimilate new material and |
| to acquire and practice research skills. |
Of course, "learning" and "disciplinary" objectives often overlap, but research suggests that frequency and variety of writing types are more likely to foster cognitive growth than infrequent and discipline-specific types that don't allow for students' diverse learning styles.
To address these learning styles, BGSU professors use a wide range of writing types with a writing-to-learn orientation. The frequency of writing and variety of types depend on factors such as level of instruction, class size, disciplinary focus, and feasibility of a writing-intensive course emphasis. It is not surprising to find, for instance, that courses in Studio Art or Physics are less likely to be writing-intensive than those in Art Education or Political Science. However, even the more hands-on, disciplinary courses have "learning" objectives that might be better achieved by the use of writing in some form or another.
In all her undergraduate courses, Politsky (Art Education) uses journals as a learning instrument: one use is for her student teachers to reflect upon their student teaching experience; another is to help her students describe, interpret, and analyze selected works of art. She uses a variety of individual and collaborative in-class writing exercises to foster thinking and writing. Her exercises generally have oral and written components that develop skills in analyzing, defining and interpreting. Also, her students regularly use invention skills such as listing, clustering, and outlining.
Mark Zust (Fine Arts) seeks to make writing a part of every assignment in his undergraduate courses since it is a powerful means of exploring and learning from new perspectives. He frequently asks students to do some type of reflective writing, which might address their artistic objectives, personal philosophies, or self-evaluations. He also requires weekly summaries of readings, discussions, or critiques as well as a writing component to oral presentations. The most comprehensive type of writing he has used is an artist's journal for each student's projects, which provides a complete record of research, intent, process, and final artistic product. In effect, verbal and visual "language" complement each other and facilitate artistic interpretative depth.
Two forms of writing used in political science classes are focused free-writing. In upper-level classes, Marc Simon uses specific topics or ideas as prompts for freewriting in which students respond to questions that have occurred to them from class discussions or their readings. These writings are then used to contribute to further thought and discussion in light of the larger course objectives.
In one of Vicki Shield's (Mass Communications and Telecommunications) undergraduate courses, she has her students work in a laboratory setting, which simulates a "newsroom" with various work stations, while the instructor/editor assists and critiques the novice journalists. The students learn to critique their own work and to collaborate with their instructor and peers. Through their lab experiences, they can better understand their own writing and thinking processes as well as the varieties of writing in their field.
Leigh Chiarelott and Cindy Gillespie (Teacher Education) routinely have their students reflect and write on their classroom observations of experienced teachers. Another type of writing involves critiquing or responding to assigned texts or journal articles and/or hypothetical teaching situations. Article critiques help students to develop critical thinking and to consider practical applications of pedagogical concepts and theories. In addition to these critiques, students are occasionally given hypothetical situations in which they might be asked to evaluate a student's performance and make recommendations about how to work more effectively with the student.
In Ann Bertoff's article "Dialectical Notebooks and the Audit of Meaning," she contends that keeping notebooks is a way we can keep track of the development of ideas (in any discipline), from inception and origin to monitoring the work-in-progress. Since Bertoff believes that "Thinking begins with perception: all knowledge is mediated" and that language is fundamental to making this knowledge, she suggests that a double-entry journal, which she calls the dialectical notebook, is an ideal place to make this knowledge. She contends that this knowledge is made through our thought process: "thinking is a dialogue we have with ourselves. . . dialectic is an audit of meaning--a continuing effort to review the meanings we are making in order to see further what they mean." The meanings that are made can be recorded in the dialectical notebook, which is a double-entry journal where the two pages face each other in dialogue. "On one side are observations, sketches, noted impressions, passages copied out, jottings on reading or other responses; on the facing page are notes on these notes, responses to these responses--in current jargon, 'meta-comment.'" One of the first things that these notebooks can teach both us and our students is that we are involved in making our own meaning, and that our meaning is made in circularities: "thinking about thinking; arranging our techniques for arranging; interpreting our interpretations."
Stanley Zoltek, math professor at George Mason, and Anne Nielsen, biologist at Blue Ridge Community College, use "rapport" writing in their classrooms. As explained by Christopher Thaiss in his article, "WAC and the General Education Courses," Zoltek maintains his "rapport" writing via electronic journal throughout the semester with his students. As an introductory exercise, these instructors may ask their students to introduce themselves by explaining their interests and academic plans, list any questions they may have concerning the course, and/or to describe any strengths or weaknesses they already have in relation to the course subject. Zoltek and Nielsen also use this type of writing as a periodic check of student morale after they present tougher course materials: Are you currently finding anything problematic with this course? Do you have any questions for me? If, so what are they? Nielsen has found "that such invitations to students improved their morale and clued her in to student difficulties with concepts and vocabulary."
Thomas W. Rishel discusses his use of a mixture of listing and response writing techniques with his students to probe geometrical concepts, such as surface, round, straight, and line in his article "The Geometric Metaphor: Writing and Mathematics in the Classroom." After asking students to go to a place they like, sit down, describe it, and compare it to a place they do not like, Rishel selects words from their descriptions that are "geometric," like large, small, open, steep, and metaphorical words, like smooth, flowing, graceful, and free. Rishel emphasizes the role geometry plays in establishing ideas through focusing on the concepts that are formed through these geometric words.
Given the importance of writing as a learning tool, writing can be a useful pedagogical strategy in most disciplines. Various disciplines are already using writing in a variety of ways, both here at Bowling Green State University and across the country. The following are sample modes of writing currently being used. This brief listing is not intended to be comprehensive; rather it is intended to spark the imagination of educators across the university to devise ways in which writing may enhance learning in their own classes in their discipline.
Dr. Donald Neiman (History) uses summary writing assignments as a tool with which students may focus on specific interpretive readings.
Dr. Vickie Shields (Mass Communication) uses one assignment which instructs students to write a summary following very specific criteria. This assignment, "Storytelling as News," requires students to count the words in a previous assignment then they have to change the style of the assignment, writing the revised version in half as many words. Students utilizing this assignment learn to revise and edit for appropriate audiences with various genres in mind.
Dr. Marc Simon (Political Science) assigns two-paper case studies to upper-level students as a means of teaching the difference between description and analysis. The first paper, similar to a summary, has students discuss the factual aspects of a topic, such as a particular war. The second paper then has students analyze those specific events in terms of the abstract concepts discussed throughout the course.
Dr. Melissa Spirek (Mass Communication) provides an added incentive for students to hone their critiquing ability. Students are placed in pairs and asked to share their written assignments with one another. Each student is expected to critically examine and question the contents of their partner's assignment. If the commenting partner fails to identify erroneous or weak data in a peer's paper, both students are penalized. The peer reviewer is penalized for failing to identify the flawed data, while the writer is penalized for creating such work.
Essay Questions require students to synthesize course materials with their knowledge bank in order to gain and demonstrate insights through their study. These questions are quite often found on both in-class and take-home tests.
Research Papers, familiar in nearly all disciplines, enhance student research, reading, and critical thinking skills by having students research a specific topic and then synthesize the gathered information through writing in order to demonstrate their learning as well as disseminate their new-found knowledge with their peers.
Technical Reports are either training for the types of writing required in the professional work of a specific discipline, or a simulation of those types of writing, designed to assist students in learning how to "think" like a professional. Some disciplines, such as history, political science, and the fine arts may have a large number of non-major students in their 100/200 level courses. Dr. Donald Neiman, Chair of the History Department at BGSU, reports that because only 2-3% of the student population in the lower level history courses are history majors, "We do not teach them (the courses) with majors in mind." However, other disciplines, such as education and communication disorders, have few students, even in 100/200 level courses, who are not intending on pursuing careers in those fields. Particularly in these fields, technical report writing is important. Although these types of technical reports are usually specific to a given discipline, they may prompt educators to think of ways in which writing in their scholarly/professional work might facilitate students' learning as well.
Dr. Chiarelott and Dr. Gillespie (Education) both see the lesson plan and other practical assignments, such as handouts, study guides, and tests, as practice for the kinds of writing teachers do in the real world of work.
Dr. Linda Petrosino (Communications Disorders) notes that professional report writing, in which detailed observations are recorded using discipline-specific terminology to produce an objective account of a patient's condition, are important in the profession; consequently, her students learn to write these types of reports. The raw data recorded in these reports may be used in order to prepare case studies, which follow the standard scientific methodology to analyze data. Another type of technical report vital to communication disorder professionals are efficacy studies in which practitioners defend their contribution to a particular program.
Many of the hard sciences, such as biology, physics, and chemistry, require students to write lab reports which report on and discuss the findings from their experiments.
Dr. Vickie Shields (Mass Communication) has students write scripts for broadcast news, advertisements, and television comedy/drama/documentary programs in preparation for their work in the industry.
Rather than writing traditional research papers, George W. Chilcoat suggests in his article "Writing Dime Novels to Understand Popular Culture" that students write dime novels: "The dime novel activity can encourage students to rely on their own application of the historical method and to draw on and test their own conclusions separate from those already formulated by teachers, historians, and textbooks" (203). Expressive, argumentative, and informative writing all go into writing a dime novel; additionally, students see the assignment as a means of exercising their creativity. Students must decide on a historical figure or event to write upon, research that figure or event for facts to include in their dime novel, and then build a plot with characters around the factual kernels of the story. Once the dime novels are written, Chilcoat discusses with his students the theories they have formed about the real event or person in their story and how those theories might apply to modern society.
Abbot, Michael M., Pearl W. Bartelt, Stephen M. Fishman, and Charlotte Honda. "Interchange: A Conversation among the Disciplines." Writing, Teaching, and Learning in the Disciplines (WTLD). New York: MLA, 1992. 103- 18.
Berthoff, Ann E. Forming/Thinking/ Writing: The Composing Imagination. RochellePark, NJ: Hayden Book Company, 1978.